What are the 4 types of organic food

What Is Organic Food, and Is It Better Than Non-Organic Food?

Organic foods have grown increasingly popular over the last 2 decades. In fact, U.S. consumers spent $56 billion on organic produce in 2020 (1).

This number increased by nearly 13% from 2019, so their popularity does not seem to be slowing down (2).

Some people think organic food is safer, healthier, and tastier than conventionally grown food (3).

Others say its better for the environment and the well-being of animals.

This article compares organic and non-organic foods, including their nutrient content and effects on human health.

The term organic refers to how certain foods are produced. Organic foods have been grown or farmed without the use of:

In order to be labelled organic, a food product must be free of artificial food additives. This includes artificial sweeteners, preservatives, coloring, flavoring, and monosodium glutamate (MSG).

Organically grown crops tend to use natural fertilizers like manure to improve plant growth. Animals raised organically are not given antibiotics or hormones.

Organic farming tends to improve soil quality and the conservation of groundwater. It also reduces pollution and may be better for the environment.

The most commonly purchased organic foods are fruits, vegetables, grains, dairy products and meat. Processed organic products are also available, such as sodas, cookies, and meat substitutes.

Summary

Organic foods are produced through farming practices that only use natural substances. This means avoiding all artificial chemicals, hormones, antibiotics, and GMOs.

Studies comparing the nutrient content of organic and non-organic foods have had mixed results.

This is most likely due to natural variation in food handling and production. However, evidence does suggest that foods grown organically may be more nutritious.

Organically grown crops have more antioxidants and vitamins

Several older studies have found that organic foods generally contain higher levels of antioxidants and certain micronutrients, such as vitamin C, zinc, and iron (4, 5, 6, 7).

In fact, antioxidant levels can be up to 69% higher in these foods (7).

A 2003 study found that organically grown berries and corn contained 58% more antioxidants and up to 52% higher amounts of vitamin C (6).

Whats more, one study reported that replacing regular fruit, vegetables and cereals with organic versions could provide extra antioxidants in your diet. This was comparable to eating 12 extra portions of fruit and vegetables daily (7).

Organic plants do not rely on chemical pesticide sprays to protect themselves. Instead, they produce more of their own protective compounds, namely antioxidants.

This may partly explain the higher levels of antioxidants in these plants.

Nitrate levels are generally lower

Organically grown crops have also been shown to have lower levels of nitrate. In fact, studies have shown that nitrate levels are 30% lower in these crops (7, 8).

High nitrate levels are associated with an increased risk of certain types of cancer (9, 10).

Theyre also associated with a condition called methemoglobinemia, a disease in infants that affects the bodys ability to carry oxygen (11, 12).

Organic dairy and meat may have a more favorable fatty acid profile

Organic milk and dairy products may contain higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids and slightly higher amounts of iron, vitamin E, and some carotenoids (13, 14, 15).

However, organic milk may contain less selenium and iodine than non-organic milk. These are two minerals that are essential for health (14).

A review of 67 studies found that organic meat contained higher levels of omega-3 fatty acids and slightly lower levels of saturated fats than conventional meat (16).

A higher intake of omega-3 fatty acids has been associated with many health benefits, including a reduced risk of heart disease.

However, several other studies found no differences.

While several studies find that organic foods can have significant positive outcomes, others have found insufficient evidence to recommend organic over conventional (17).

An observational study comparing the nutrient intakes of nearly 4,000 adults consuming either organic or conventional vegetables found conflicting results.

Although a slightly higher intake of certain nutrients was seen in the organic group, this was most likely due to higher overall vegetable consumption (18).

A review of 35 studies found some positive outcomes associated with organic food but couldnt draw any definitive conclusion (19).

Another review of 233 studies found a lack of strong evidence to conclude that organic foods are more nutritious than regular foods (20).

Nevertheless, it is important to remember that these studies vary quite widely in their results.

This is because the nutrient content of food depends on many factors, such as soil quality, weather conditions, and when the crops are harvested.

The composition of dairy products and meat can be affected by differences in animal genetics and animal breed, what the animals eat, the time of year, and the type of farm.

The natural variations in the production and handling of foods make comparisons difficult. Thats why the results of these studies arent conclusive.

Summary

Organically grown crops may have less nitrate and more of certain vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Organic dairy products and meat may have more omega-3 fatty acids. However, the evidence is mixed.

Many people choose to buy organic food in order to avoid artificial chemicals.

Evidence suggests that consuming these foods may reduce your exposure to pesticide residues and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (20).

One study found that levels of cadmium, an extremely toxic metal, were 48% lower in organic produce. In addition, pesticide residues were four times more likely to be found in non-organic crops (7).

It is important to note that the higher levels of cadmium and pesticide residue in conventionally grown produce were still well below safety limits (21).

However, some experts worry that cadmium can accumulate over time in the body, potentially causing harm. Washing, scrubbing, peeling, and cooking food can reduce these chemicals, although it doesnt always remove them completely (22, 23).

Nevertheless, evidence suggests that the risk of exposure to pesticide residue in foods is small and unlikely to cause harm (24, 25).

Summary

Choosing organic foods may reduce your exposure to toxins, pesticide residues, and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, the levels of toxins in regular produce are generally well below the safety limits.

There is some evidence suggesting that organic foods have health benefits.

For example, several lab studies found that their higher antioxidant content helped protect cells from damage. And animal studies show that organic diets may benefit growth, reproduction, and the immune system (26).

One study also reported that chickens fed an organic diet showed reduced weight gain and had stronger immune systems (26).

Older observational studies suggest that organic foods may lower risk of allergies and eczema in children and infants. (27, 28, 29).

A large 2014 observational study of 623,080 women found no difference in cancer risk between people who never ate organic food and those who ate it regularly (30).

Unfortunately, theres simply not enough strong evidence available to confirm that organic foods benefit human health more than conventional foods.

More high quality human studies are needed.

Summary

There is not enough strong evidence available to prove that eating organic provides health benefits over eating regular foods.

Just because a product is labeled organic, it doesnt mean that it is nutrient dense.

Some of these products are still highly processed foods high in calories, added sugar, salt, and added fats.

For example, items such as organic cookies, chips, sodas, and ice cream should be consumed in moderation. Despite being organic, these products may still be low in nutrients.

When making the choice of what to eat, it may be more beneficial to choose based on your dietary needs and the vitamins and minerals contained in the food, rather than on the basis of organic versus conventional.

Summary

Highly processed organic food can still be low in nutrients and high in added fat, sugar, and calories.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has set up an organic certification program. This means any farmer or food producer selling organic food must meet strict government standards.

If you decide to choose organic, its important to look for the USDA organic seal.

Also, watch for these statements on food labels, so you can identify food that is truly organically grown:

• 100% organic. This product is made entirely from organic ingredients.
• Organic. At least 95% of the ingredients in this product are organic.
• Made with organic ingredients. At least 70% of the ingredients are organic.

If a product contains less than 70% organic ingredients, it cannot be labeled organic or use the USDA seal. Similar standards are enforced in Europe, Canada, and Australia. Each country or continent has its own seal to help consumers identify organic food.

Summary

To identify organic food, look for the appropriate seal or a statement like one of the three examples above.

The evidence is mixed on whether organic foods contain more antioxidants and nutrients than conventionally grown food.

Consuming organic food may reduce your exposure to artificial chemicals, added hormones, and antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

However, it can cost more and may not be accessible to everyone. Additionally, its not clear if going organic has additional health benefits.

Whether to buy organic is a choice you should make based on your personal preferences.

A Systematic Review of Organic Versus Conventional Food Consumption: Is There a Measurable Benefit on Human Health?

Jensen (1996) [50]DenmarkAge: mean 33 years100% maleMembers of organic farming organisations (n = 55) / airline company (n = 141)196Cross-sectional study. Analysis of semen samples for sperm quality in male organic farmers and airline workers.Diet, working conditions, health, and lifestyle were assessed with questionnaire. Those with >25% organic diet defined as organic group. Self-reported FFQ.Comparison of sperm concentration, seminal volume, total sperm count, and sperm morphology. Sperm concentration was 43.1% (95%CI 3.2%98.8%, p = 0.033) higher among men eating organically produced food. Seminal volume, total sperm count, and sperm morphology were not different between groups. This was a short report and missing detail on organic diet definitions between groups. No specific definition of organic.Juhler (1999) [51]DenmarkAge: mean 38 years100% maleOrganic farmers (n = 85) / conventional farmers (n = 171) 256Cross-sectional study. Analysis of semen samples for sperm quality in organic vs. conventional farmers.Farmers divided into three groups, according to organic production/proportion of organic food consumption: none (N, 0%), medium (M, 149%), or a high (H, 50100%) proportion FV consumed. Self-reported FFQ.Correlation between estimated dietary pesticide intakes and semen parameters (including sperm concentration, seminal volume, total sperm count, and sperm morphology). Group N showed a significantly lower proportion of morphologically normal spermatozoa, but no difference in 14 other semen parameters. A higher intake of five specific pesticides equated with a lower percentage of dead spermatozoa. No other significant differences were found.No specific definition of organic.Chiu (2018) [52]United States;Environment and Reproductive Health (EARTH) StudyAge: mean 35 years100% femaleWomen attending fertility clinic325Prospective cohort.Artificially assisted reproduction (AAR) outcomes in women, including pregnancy/birth outcomes associated with high and low dietary pesticide exposure. Self-reported FFQ, prior to starting AAR. A total Pesticide Residue Burden Score (PRBS) was calculated (based on pesticide residue data and organic FV intake). Classifications were organic >3 times/week, or non-organic <3 times/week.Clinical outcomes included implantation, clinical pregnancy, live birth. Early ART end points included markers of ovarian responses to stimulation (peak estradiol levels, endometrial thickness, oocyte development, total oocytes), fertilization rate, and embryo quality.High PRBS was inversely associated with probability of clinical pregnancy and live birth per initiated cycle. Compared with women in the lowest quartile of high-pesticide residue FV intake (<1 serving/day), women in the highest quartile (2.3 servings/d) had 18% (95%CI, 5%30%) lower probability of clinical pregnancy and 26% (95%CI, 13%37%) lower probability of live birth. No association was found between quartiles and early ART end points. The adjusted probabilities of total pregnancy loss were 7% (95%CI, 3%15%), 23% (95%CI, 16%33%), 24% (95% CI, 15%36%), and 34% (95% CI, 20%51%) for women in increasing quartiles of highpesticide residue FV intake.No specific definition of organic. Volunteers were asked to provide information on frequency of organic FV consumption (<3 vs 3 times/week).Baudry (2018) [53]France; Nutri-Net Sant Cohort studyAge: mean 44 years78% femaleGeneral population68,946Prospective observational cohort study (internet-based). Followed for up to 7 years, looking at all first primary cancers diagnosed between study inclusion and November 2016.FFQ and cancer data (self-reported, but verified with medical records in >90% of cases). Estimated intake of 16 organic food/beverage items recorded to determine an organic score. Organic quartiles: Q4 = highest organic food intake, Q1 = lowest organic food intake. All first primary cancers diagnosed between study inclusion and November 2016. All cancer types considered cases except for basal cell skin carcinoma, which was not considered cancer.High organic food scores were linearly and negatively associated with the overall risk of cancer (HR for Q4 vs Q1, 0.75; 95%CI, 0.630.88; P for trend = .001; absolute risk reduction, 0.6%; HR for a 5-point increase, 0.92; 95% CI, 0.880.96). Within individual cancer types, a significantly reduced HR was seen for those with Q4 intake vs. Q1 for all lymphomas, non-Hodgkin lymphoma and post-menopausal breast cancer. No specific definition of organic. Consumption frequency of 264 food and drink items used to calculate organic score.Baudry (2018) [20]France; Nutri-Net Sant Cohort studyAge: mean 58 years70% femaleGeneral population300Nested matched case-control study of 300 participants (150 low and 150 high organic food consumers), with available fasting blood samples for analysis. Self-reported FFQ used to estimate organic food intake. Low and high organic food consumers were grouped according to proportion of organic food below 10% or above 50%. The average proportions of organic food in the diet were 3% ( 3) and 67% ( 13) in the conventional and organic groups, respectively. Plasma concentrations of vitamins A and E as well as 6 carotenoids (-carotene, -carotene, -cryptoxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene), copper, cadmium, magnesium, iron, transferrin and ferritin, fatty acid composition.No significant differences were found between the 2 groups for -tocopherol and retinol, cadmium, copper, ferritin or transferrin. Organic consumers exhibited higher plasma concentrations of -carotene, -carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin with no differences for other carotenoids. Organic consumers had higher magnesium, lower iron, lower palmitoleic acid, -linolenic acid, and docosapentaenoic acid, and higher linoleic acid.No specific definition of organic. Consumption frequency of 264 food and drink items used to calculate organic score.Baudry (2019) [54]France; Nutri-Net Sant Cohort studyAge: mean 58 years70% femaleGeneral population 300 Nested matched case-control study of 300 participants (150 low and 150 high organic food consumers), with available urine samples for analysis.Self-reported FFQ used to estimate organic food intake. Low and high organic food consumers were grouped according to proportion of organic food below 10% or above 50%. The average proportions of organic food in the diet were 3% ( 3) and 67% ( 13) in the conventional and organic groups, respectively.Urinary pesticide and metabolite concentrations (organophosphorus, pyrethroid, and azole compounds). Pesticide concentrations were mostly below LOD. For pesticide metabolites, significantly higher levels of DETP, DMTP, total DAPs (organophosphorus metabolites) and free 3-PBA (a pyrethroid metabolite) were found among conventional consumers compared to organic consumers, with median concentration levels of diethylphosphate (0.196 versus 0.297), dimethylphosphate (0.620 versus 1.382), and total dialkylphosphates (0.12 versus 0.16), p < 0.05. No specific definition of organic. Consumption frequency of 264 food and drink items used to calculate organic score.Brantster (2016) [55]Norway; The Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). 100% femalePregnant women who delivered a singleton male infant.35,107Prospective cohort.Pregnant women at gestational week 22 surveyed for organic food consumption with results correlated to prevalence of male infants born with hypospadias or cryptorchidism.Self-reported FFQ collected information about average dietary intake since start of pregnancy over six groups of organically produced food (vegetables, fruit, bread/cereal, milk/dairy products, eggs, and meat). Association between non-organic/organic food consumption (never/seldom vs sometimes/often/mostly) and development of hypospadias or cryptorchidism in male newborns.Seventy-four male newborns were diagnosed with hypospadias (0.2%), and 151 with cryptorchidism (0.4%). Women who consumed any organic food during pregnancy were less likely to give birth to a boy with hypospadias (OR = 0.42; 95% CI: 0.25, 0.70, based on 21 exposed cases) than women who reported they never or seldom consumed organic food. Associations with specific organic foods were strongest for vegetable (OR = 0.36; 95% CI: 0.15, 0.85; 10 exposed cases) and milk/dairy (OR = 0.43; 95% CI: 0.17, 1.07; 7 exposed cases) consumption. No association was observed for consumption of organic food and cryptorchidism.All food sold as organic in Norway must be certified by Debio. Debio is accredited organic by Norwegian Accreditation and by IFOAM. Torjusen (2016) [56]Norway; The Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa)Age: mean 28 years100% femaleNulliparous pregnant females.28,192Prospective cohort.Pregnant women at gestational week 22 surveyed for organic food consumption with results correlated to prevalence of pre-eclampsia. Among the 28,192 women in this study, the majority reported never/rarely eating organic food; 39.8% ate at least one organic food sometimes; 7% ate at least one organic food often; and 1.8% reported use of any organic food mostly.Pre-eclampsia in pregnant women.The prevalence of pre-eclampsia in the study sample was 5.3% (n = 1,491). Women who reported eating organic often or mostly (n = 2,493, 8.8%) had lower risk of pre-eclampsia than those who reported never/rarely or sometimes (crude OR = 0.76, 95%CI 0.61, 0.96; adjusted OR = 0.79, 95%CI 0.62, 0.99). The lower risk was evident also when adjusting for overall dietary quality.No specific definition of organic. Frequent organic consumption was defined as eating organic food often for at least one of the six food categories.Christensen (2013) [57]Denmark100% femaleMothers of boys operated on for hypospadias (n = 306) and matching control group (n = 306)612Retrospective case-control study. Retrospective interviews of organic dietary habits in mothers with male infant born with hypospadias and matched controls.FFQ listed choice of organic food items in the first trimester for milk, other dairy, eggs, meat, FV. Responses consisted of often, sometimes, rarely and never. Current dietary habits (up to several years post-pregnancy) were taken as proxy for pregnancy diet. Association between organic food consumption of specified food groups during pregnancy and prevalence of hypospadias in infant sons.Higher OR for hypospadias was found with rare or no consumption of organic non-milk dairy products, however, the association was not statistically significant after adjustment (OR = 1.36, 95%CI 0.95, 1.94). A similar association was observed for mothers rarely or never choosing organic eggs (OR = 1.28, 95%CI 0.92, 1.79). Total organic intake showed no statistically significant association, however, mothers who never or rarely chose any organic products had nonsignificant increased odds of giving birth to a boy with hypospadias (adjusted OR = 1.31, 95%CI 0.78, 2.21).No specific definition of organic.Rist (2007) [58]Netherlands; KOALA Birth CohortAge: mean 33 years100% femaleBreastfeeding mothers with conventional (NO) or alternative (O) lifestyle 312Cross-sectional study. Analysis of breast milk for fatty acid content from lactating women with predominantly organic or non-organic food consumption. FFQ at gestational week 34. Classification into four groups based on the origin of meat/dairy products only.Organic = >90% organicModerate = 50-90% organicConventional = <50% organic Amount of conjugated linoleic acids in breast milk of lactating women, measured as trans-vaccenic acid (TVA) and cis-9,trans-11-octadecadienoic acid (Rumenic). Rumenic acid increased in a statistically significant way moving from a conventional diet (n = 186) to a moderately organic diet (n = 33), to a strict organic diet (n = 37). TVA levels were higher in the two mostly organic quartiles than in the conventional or minimal groups. No specific definition of organic. Food origin specified as conventional or organic and % of food group as <50 %, 5090% or >90%.Mueller (2010) [59] Netherlands; KOALA Birth CohortAge: mean 33 years100% femaleBreastfeeding mothers with conventional (NO) or alternative (O) lifestyle310Cross-sectional study. Analysis of breast milk for trans fatty acid content from lactating women with predominantly organic or non-organic food consumption. FFQ at gestational week 34. Classification into four groups based on the origin of meat/dairy products only.Organic = >90% organicModerate = 50-90% organicConventional = <50% organicAmount of trans fatty acids (TFA) in breast milk of lactating women, measured as different trans fatty acid isomers. Total TFA content of mothers milk in the compared groups ranged between 3 and 3.3% of total fatty acids. There were no significant differences in the total TFA content between groups of organic vs. non-organic intake or amount of dairy fat intake reported. No specific definition of organic. Food origin specified as conventional or organic and % of food group as <50 %, 5090% or >90%.Kummeling (2008) [60]Netherlands; KOALA birth CohortAge: 2 yearsInfants with non-organic (NO) (n = 2,135), or organic diet (O) (n = 463)2598Prospective cohort. Mothers of infants surveyed about childs organic food consumption and allergy symptoms at 3, 7, 12 and 24 months of age. Parents completed FFQ at each time-point. Infants diet classified as: conventional (<50% organic); moderately organic (5090% organic); strictly organic (>90% organic).Association between allergic symptoms reported by parents (including eczema, wheeze occurrence, rash) and intake of organic vs. conventional foods; IgE antibodies measured in a subset of children (n = 815). Consumption of organic dairy products was associated with lower eczema risk (OR = 064, 95%CI 044, 093), but there was no association for development of eczema, wheeze or atopic sensitisation. No statistically significant associations were observed between organic food consumption and recurrent wheeze (OR = 051, 95%CI 026, 099) during the first 2 years of life.In the Netherlands organic products include biodynamic production, which carry the registered EKO certification.Stenius (2011) [61]Sweden; ALLADIN StudyAge: foetal period (2^nd trimester of mother) 24 months330Prospective cohort. Anthroposophic or non-anthroposophic families followed for development of allergic sensitisation in children, correlated with lifestyle factors (including organic food choice).FFQ completed by pregnant women in 2^nd trimester. Child followed for allergic sensitisation to 24 months. Organic food consumption in AL group was 80% and 5% in CL group.IgE in cord blood and sensitisation to common allergens and total IgE at 6, 12, and 24 months of age. Children of families with AL had a markedly decreased risk of sensitisation during the first 2 years of life compared with children of CL families with adjusted OR = 0.25 (95%CI 0.10, 0.64), p = 0.004. Children from families with a partly anthroposophic lifestyle had similar result with adjusted OR = 0.31 (95%CI 0.15, 0.54), p = 0.002. No specific definition of organic. Organic/biodynamic diet evaluated as one of many lifestyle questions, with no detail of how this was quantified.Buscail (2015) [62]France; PELAIGE mother-child cohortAge: foetal period (from gestation) 24 months1505Prospective observational cohort study. Mothers consumption of organic food mid-pregnancy and when infant is 2 years, correlated to episodes of otitis media. Pregnant women completed questionnaires reporting domestic use of pesticides and consumption of organic diet during pregnancy at 19 weeks of gestation and again at age 2 of infant. Children were assessed for otitis media during early childhood. Episodes of otitis media (OM) and recurrent OM in children. Urinary samples to measure pesticides (n = 248). Associations between pesticide measurements and OM. Children whose mothers reported an organic diet during pregnancy had a reduced risk of OM (at least one episode, p trend = 0.01). No association was found between any outcome and residential proximity to crops. The presence in maternal urine of dealkylated triazine metabolites (herbicide) was positively associated with recurrent OM (OR = 2.12 (1.01 to 4.47)).No specific definition of organic. Fruit, vegetables and cereals from a non-organic diet were selected as proxies for insecticide exposure.Kesse-Guyot (2017) [63]France; Nutri-Net Sant Cohort studyAge: mean 45 years 78% FemaleGeneral population62,224Prospective cohort (internet-based). Followed for up to 10 years, looking at body weight change, risk of overweight or obesity and consumption of organic food. Self-reported FFQ and anthropometric data completed annually (average 3.1 year follow-up). Estimated intake of 16 organic food/beverage items recorded to determine an organic score (OS). Organic diet quartiles: Q4 = highest rate of organic food consumption, Q1 = lowest rate of organic food consumption. Correlation between the OS and change in BMI during follow-up and risk of overweight and obesity. Lower BMI increase was observed across quartiles of the OS (mean difference Q4 v.Q1 = 0.16 (95%CI 0.32, 0.01). An increase in the OS was associated with a lower risk of overweight and obesity (among non-overweight and non-obese participants at inclusion): OR for Q4 v. Q1 were 0.77 (95%CI 0.68, 0.86) and 0.69 (95%CI 0.58, 0.82), respectively. The association remained strong and highly significant, with a reduction in the risk of obesity of 37% at follow-up. A similar association was observed for overweight, although the strength of the association was smaller.No specific definition of organic. Consumption frequency of 264 food and drink items used to calculate organic score.Baudry (2017) [64]France; Nutri-Net Sant Cohort studyAge: mean 45 years 78% FemaleGeneral population8174Cross-sectional analysis of proportion of organic food in the diet (overall and by food group) and prevalence of metabolic syndrome. Participants filled out a self-administered FFQ, including 264 food and beverage items. Separated into tertiles of organic food consumption. Correlation between level of organic food intake and prevalence of metabolic syndrome. Higher organic food consumption was associated with a lower probability of metabolic syndrome, being negatively associated with prevalence, 0.69 (95%CI 0.61, 0.78) when comparing the third tertile of proportion of organic food in the diet with the first one (p < 0.0001). No specific definition of organic. Consumption frequency of 264 food and drink items used to calculate organic score.Bradbury (2014) [65]United Kingdom; The Million Women StudyAge: mean 59 years100% FemaleGeneral population623,080Prospective cohort. Study correlates frequency of organic food intake to cancer incidence in women, followed on average for 9.3 years. Women without cancer at baseline completed a questionnaire asking Do you eat organic food? with four possible responses: never, sometimes, usually, and always. Repeated at follow-up (on average 9.3 yr). Association of organic diet with cancer, including all cancers combined (except non-melanoma skin cancer), oral, oesophageal, stomach, colorectum, pancreas, lung, malignant melanoma, breast, endometrium, ovary, kidney, bladder, brain, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and leukaemia. At baseline, 30%, 63% and 7% of women reported never, sometimes, or usually/always eating organic food, respectively. Consumption of organic food was not associated with a reduction in the incidence of all cancer (n = 53,769 cases in total) (RR for usually/always vs never = 1.03, 95%CI 0.99, 1.07), soft tissue sarcoma (RR = 1.37, 95%CI 0.82, 2.27), or breast cancer (RR = 1.09, 95%CI 1.02, 1.15), but was associated with reduced risk for non-Hodgkin lymphoma (RR = 0.79, 95%CI 0.65, 0.96).No specific definition of organic. McGuire (2016) [66]United StatesAge: mean 29 years 100% femaleBreastfeeding women 13 months postpartum 41Cross-sectional study. Single milk and urine sample from each woman to assess level of pesticides. 5 question survey that documented potential glyphosate exposure from environment and diet. 42% of the women identified as having "strictly or mainly organic food choices"Glyphosate and AMPA concentrations in human milk, correlated with pesticide excretion in urine samples. Glyphosate and AMPA were not detectable in milk samples. There were no significant effects of consuming organic over conventional foods or living on/near a farm compared with living in an urban/suburban region on concentrations of glyphosate (p = 0.1870 and 0.8773, respectively), or AMPA in urine (p = 0.1414 and 0.2525, respectively). No specific definition of organic. Food intake was self-reported as either mainly organic or mainly conventional.Curl (2003) [33]United StatesAge: 25 years56% Male Children39Cross-sectional study. Level of organic food (%) in diet correlated to pesticide excretion in urine. Food frequency data and urine samples were collected.Parents of children interviewed about diet, health information and pesticide use, with 2 day food diary completed on day of child's urine sampling. Diet reported as mostly organic or mostly conventional. 24-hour urine samples measured for urinary DAP or DMP concentrations.The median total DMP concentration was approximately six times higher for children with conventional diets than for children with organic diets (0.17 and 0.03 mol/L; p = 0.0003); mean concentrations differed by a factor of nine (0.34 and 0.04 mol/L). No specific definition of organic. >75% of dietary intake as organic or conventionally separated the two groups. Curl (2015) [32]United StatesAge: 4584 years50% FemaleAdults with subclinical cardiovascular disease6814Cross-sectional study. Food frequency data and urine samples were collected, correlating organic intake to urinary excretion of pesticides.Diet was reported as mostly organic or conventional. Participants were asked about their usual intake of specific foods and beverages over the past year. Average pesticide intake was then calculated. Correlation between pesticide intake and excretion of pesticides in urine. Sub-group analysis of urine samples for pesticides (n = 240).Among conventional consumers, increasing tertile of estimated dietary organophosphate exposure was associated with higher DAP concentrations (p < 0.05). DAP concentrations were also significantly lower in groups reporting more frequent consumption of organic produce (p < 0.02).No specific definition of organic. Foods eaten are correlated to US Dept Agriculture data on pesticide residues and a pesticide exposure number assigned.